Unit-I
1.
An Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology
1.1.
Brief Introduction to Sociology :
The term 'sociology' firstly
Introduce by French philosopher Auguste
comte in 1938 but the terminology sociology is used by ancient philosopher Herodotus
. August Comte is one of the founding father of Sociology. It is youngest
social science among the social science. Before 1930 it was in the juvenile
stage . The teaching of sociology as a separate subject started in 1876 in the
united states, In 1889 in France, in 1907 in Britain and in 1919 in India.
After 1930s it spread world wide. However the department of
sociology/Anthropology established in Nepal under the TU in 1981.
According
to the dictionary of sociology by Gorden
Marshall the term 'sociology' is derived from the latin
socius and greek logus means companion or society and study relatively. Thus
the etymological meaning of sociology is 'the study of society'. It means the
sociology studies the social action and interaction, social relationships,
social process, social system and other related subject matters to the society.
1.1.1.
Defination of Sociology :
So many sociologist have describe sociology as
their understanding and knowledge. Some of them describe about social
relationship, interaction and behavior and some of them focuses in social
system and structure. Some of the sociologists have given different definition
in their own words which are mention
below.
i)
L.F.Ward— “Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena.”
ii) Ginsberg— “ Sociology is the study
of human interaction and interrelations,
their conditions and consequences.”
iii) Von Wiese—
“ Sociology is a special social science concentrating on inter-human behaviour,
on process of socialization, on association and disassociation as such.”
iv) H.P.Fairchild—
“Sociology is the study of the relationship between man and his human
environment.”
v) P.V.Young and Mack—
“ Sociology is the scientific study of the structure of social life.”
vi) Max Weber—
“Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of
social action.”
vii) Park and Burgess—“
Sociology is the science of collective behaviour.”
These above mention definition shows
that the sociology is the science of human society. As a conclusion we can
define in this way
@
Sociology is a science of society.
@
Sociology is a science of
interrelationship.\
@
Sociology is the study of social life.
@
Sociology is the study of human
behaviour in group and social process.
@
Sociology is the study of social
action.
@
Sociology is the study of social
groups.
We
can conclude that sociology attempts to discover the evolution of
society, its system and structure, the development of social institutions and
their functions, the customs and rules regulating social relationships, the
groups and communities formed by man thorough history , the natural and
interdependence of there groups like family, caste, government, economic groups
religious groups etc. and the phenomenon of social change.
1.1.2.
Nature of Sociology :
There
is a great controversy about the nature of Sociology among the
sociologist that either it is a science or not ? Some of the
sociologists claim that sociology can not be
regarded as a science where as other sociologists are oppose to this
notion. According to the m who are of opinion that sociology can not be
regarded as a science have been tried to prove their argument on the following
basis:
i) Lack of experiment :- If science is
used in the some sense in which it is used for natural sciences, then sociology
can not claim to be a science. The term
science as used for natural sciences include the process of experiment and
prediction. Sociology in this sense is not a science because its subject
matters can neither be touch nor see, neither weigh nor analyze in the
laboratory. It does not process the equipments like the microscope and the
thermometer to measure the human behavior and social interaction.
ii) Lack of Objectivity :- Another
difficulty of sociology in using the scientific method is that a sociologists
can not maintain complete objectivity with the objectives of his experiment as
does a natural scientist. Man has own prejudices and bias. So that it is not
possible for him to observe his subject matter with bias less manner. Like wise
if a person tries to maintain objectivity in the study of human behavior, he is
suddenly treated as a foolish betragal or worse. Instead of public hostile
behavior social relationship can not be studied through physical sense. It
means, a sociologist always confronted with complex phenomenon. So that
sociological investigation is always lack of objectivity.
iii) Lack of exactivity :- Science
depends upon observation and hypothesis and sociology is unable to employ these
methods. From this view point sociology can not be treated as a real science
because firstly its methods and conclusion can not be expressed in precise
terms and secondly its predictions might not come true because social
phenomenon is too vast, human motivations are so complex and it is difficult to
make predictions about human behavior. These obstacles do not support the
exactivity of sociological investigations as science. So that, it may be
concluded that sociological study is merely a social study rather than
scientific study.
iv)
Terminological Inefficiency :- There is a controversy that sociology has
been suffering from inexact and clear terminology . For example- caste and
class have not yet acquired exact meaning. There is a great confusion to
explain these terms among sociologists of Indian continent aboard. Some sociologist
are of opinion that many of sociological terms like religion, caste, class,
groups etc. are the words found in every day use which we ceare to employ terms
with vague meanings and these terminological inefficiency will remain an
obstacle in the way of sociology developing in to a science.
Sociology as a Science :-
Although a scientific study of social
phenomena is not free from difficulties. Social studies, by their distinct
nature may not be as exact or natural as physical sciences. Some scholars are
of opinion that it needs exactness of conclusion and capacity to predict about
the study which makes a subject as a science. But this arguments is not true
because universal validity of conclusion and complete accuracy of prediction
are not the criteria of science rather the scientific character of a discipline
depends on its methodology. If the methods of study are scientific, the subject
can be ranked as a science. In this sense, having own subject matter and
advanced methodology of study, sociology can be entitled as a science.
Other logical fact which prove that
sociology is science are as follows.
i)
Although sociology
can not experiment with men directly in a laboratory, but it is responsible to
scientific investigation as other natural phenomena. Sociology has developed
various study methods including experiment which are- scale of sociometry,
social survey, schedule, questionnaire, interview, case study, quantitative
measurement or statistical methods and so on. Using this methods of study it can
be concluded that sociology is a science.
ii) All the physical sciences are not
able to carry out the experiment in the laboratory. For example astronomy can
not present the heavenly bodies ( static, planets etc.) in the laboratory. In
spite of this situation, astronomy could be termed as science. So there is no
justification to deny the title of science to sociology. Accordingly laboratory
experiment of science because sir Isac Newton and Archimides did not invent
their scientific laws in the laboratories.
iii) Sociology tries to forcast or
predict its findings as other physical sciences regardless of variation in
culture in different society. For example- incest taboo is universal and only
the sociology is able to analyze the cause of avoidance of incest taboo.
Iv) Sociological findings are based on
cause-effect relationship. For example in its study of family it has revealed
the relationship between family disorganization and divorce, between
urbanization and family disorganization as one of the main cause of divorce. It
means, sociology tries to find an answer to how and why of social processes and
social relationships. Thus sociology can not be regarded as a science.
v) Sociology is a scientific
discipline which follows the demands of validity as guided by other sciences.
It means, sociology has developed advanced methods of study to analyze its own
subject matters particularly the social relation, social institutions and
social processes. It tries to deduce general laws from systematic study of its
materials and the conclusions drawn from the study of sociological principles
are applied to the solution of social problems. Likewise to support this logic,
Auguste Comte has described sociology as social physics. Thus, sociology is a
Science.
Scope of Sociology :
There is great controversy about the
scope of sociology among the sociologists. It means there is no absolute
opinion about the scope of sociology. In this sense. V.F. Calberton writes,
since sociology is so elastic a science. It is difficult to determine just
where its boundaries begin and end; where sociology becomes social psychology
and where social psychology becomes sociology or where economic theory becomes
sociological doctrine or biological theory becomes sociological theory, some
thing which is impossible to decide. Some sociologists are of opinion that
'Sociology studies everything and any thing under the sun.' But this quotation
about the scope of sociology is too vague rather it can be said that sociology
has a limited field of enquiry which are not dealt with by other social
sciences. In sum, there are two main schools of thought among the sociologists
about the scope of sociology which are as follows :
i) Specialistic or
formalistic school of thought :-
Main advocate of this thought is George
Simmel, a famous sociologist of Germany who is of opinion that sociology is a
specific social science which describes, classifies, analyses and describe the
forms of social relationships such as –competition, subordination, division of
labor etc.
Another advocate of school of thought
is …..According to him sociology does not cover the study all the activities of
society. The scope of sociology is the study of the simple(generic) forms of
social relationship, behavior and activities etc.
Likewise another leading sociologists
Vierkandt is of opinion that sociology is a special branch of knowledge
concerned with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationships which link
men to one another in society.
Max weber one of the founder father of
sociology suggests that the aim of sociology is to interpret or understand
social behavior. But social behavior doesn't cover the whole field of human
relations. Thus, sociology concerned with the analysis and classification of
types of social relationships.
ii) Synthetic School of
thought :-
This school wants to make neutral view about the
scope of sociology. It means, it is synthetic
view and the supporter of this school are Emile Durkheim, Hob house,
Sorokin and Karl Mannheim.
According to Durkheim sociology has three main
division which are social morphology, social physiology and general sociology.
Social morphology studies the geographical or territorial basis of human life
and its relation with social organizations and
the problems of population like wise social physiology studies the
social structure and it can be divided in to a number of branches such as
sociology of religion, sociology of law sociology of economics life etc. deals
with a set of social facts and the activities of various social groups. The general
sociology tries to discover the general character of these social facts and
tries to analyze the general social laws.
In the view of Hobhouse sociology is a synthesis of
numerious social studies. It means sociology has very wide scope in contrast to
other social sciences. There are three main tasks of a sociologists which are –
a sociologist must investigate his studies in his particular part of the social
field and interpret social life as a whole.
Another scholars Sorrokin . He is a opinion of sociology is the study of relationship
between the different aspects of social phenomena.
Karl Mannheim express his view to the sociology is,
there are two sorts of sociology which are systematic & general sociology
and Historical sociology . Systematic and General sociology deals the main
factors of human action, interaction and other behaviors which are found in
every societies. Historical sociology deals with the historical variety and
actuality of the general forms of society.
As a conclusion we can say that the scope of
sociology is very wide. It is a general science and it has developed more
specialization subjects under the framework of sociology. Sociology studies all
the different aspects of society like social traditions, social process, social
morphology, social control, pathology, effects of extra-social elements upon
social relationships, social change and so forth. Accordingly it I neither possible nor
essential to delimit the scope of sociology.
Sub Division Of Sociology
:
Sociology it self a broad social science. To solve
the various types of social problems sociology has developed more that 50
branches . Which are disrobing as follows.
i) Historical Sociology :- This branches of
sociology study the past of social institutions, their structure, system and
the origin of new organization in the societies. Historical sociology compare
between the past and present social structure, system and development.
ii) Rural Sociology :- Rural sociology studied the
rural society and their feature. It studied the rural life, norms, values,
agricultural system, ecological setting of the community.
iii) Urban Sociology :- It is studied the urban social life, urban
organizations, urban social problems and so forth. This sub-division of
sociology is most practical in western Europe, America, Austrellia, Japan and
highly industrialized countries.
iv) Applied sociology :- Under this sub divisions
the sociological knowledge and principles
are applied in the society. Social planning an social development along
with social welfare is the main aim of applied sociology. This sub division is
developed during 1950s.
v) Special sociology :- There are some other special
sociologies which have been developed to study different aspects of social life
which are mentioned below.
a) Educational Sociology
b) Sociology of economics
c) Sociology of law
d) Criminology
e) Folk Sociology
f) Cultural sociology
g) Sociology of Art
h) Medical sociology
i) Sociology of recreation
j) Sociology of Bureaucracy
k) Sociology of Sex
l) Sociology of Religion
m) Political sociology
n) Sociology of social disorganization
o) Social Psychology
P) Industrial sociology
q) Military sociology
r) Sociology of sports
s) Sociology of social stratification.
Thus, there numerous sub-divisions of sociology which
are already developed and some other special sociologies will also be developed
in future.
Relationships of
sociology with other Social sciences :
Sociology studies more or less aspects of
human life i.e. political , social , religious ,cultural historical ,
psychological etc. It means ,as sociology studies all aspects of human life, it
has certainly some certain relationship to other social sciences . Likewise , all the social
sciences carry out their studies in the human society , it means human societies is the 'laboratory '
for all social sciences . But except sociology other social sciences studies or
deals merely a single aspect of social life .For example – history deals only
the historical events, human life etc.
In this
sense of relationships of all social sciences to each other , Simpson
says," social science is a unity but it is not a fictions unity ; it is
indispensable to each and all of the
others . It means , there is very close relationship among all the social
sciences that sociology has brought some
concepts and theories from other social sciences and similarly sociology has given some
methodologies and concept to other social sciences . Thus ,it can be occluded
that sociology is closely related to other social sciences but there is certain
relationship which are separately discussed as follows;
Simpson
, George man in society p.18
Sociology and History :-Being
the sub-diselipienes of social sciences , sociology and history has very close relationship to each other . To show the close relationship between sociology and History, G.E. Harard says that
" History id past sociology and
sociology and History are so intimately related
to each other that both study the social events from past to yet .
Sociology is concerned with the study of the historical development of the
societies it studies the various stage of life , modes of livings customs ,
manners and their expression in the form of social institutions . Thus
sociology has depend upon history of History . Both Historical and sociological
knowledge and methods are mutually useful in the field of historical and
sociological research .so that , these two social sciences are very closer to
each other.
In spite of their close relationship , the two
subjects are distinct due to their own subject matter, attitude , study method
( methodology) nature and scope, It means these criteria separate the social
sciences from one discipline to another . The dissimilarity between sociology and
history has mentioned in the following table.
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History
|
sociology
|
|
1. It is a branch of
special social science
2. It focuses only on
Historical events.
3. It is related to past
events.
4. Historical studies are
more descriptive and based on logic.
5. It studies the can
crete events
6. Historical findings
are not experimented
7. It's scope is very
narrow
|
1. It is general social science
2. It focuses on all
types of social relationship.
3. It is related to both
past and present social phenomena
4. Sociological studies
are more analytical and based on cause-effect relationship .
5. It studies the
abstract phenomena.
6. Sociological findings
are experimented.
7. Its scope is very
wide.
|
Beside
these points , there is vast difference between sociology and history that the
main subject matter , attitude , nature , scope and study methods are differ
from one another . In sum, being closely related , sociology and history are
different disciplines , or it can be said that sociology id the elder brother
of all social sciences .
1.7.2 Sociology and Economics :-
There is also a close relationship between
sociology and economic. Economics is a science of wealth and it focuses on
three phases of economic activities like production system , distribution
system and consumption system. It is thud concerned with a single aspect of
human life and social action which is vary closely connected with the material
needs of well being . In other worlds . economics is concerned with material welfare of human
society . Beside these economics also deals some sociological problems like
unemployment , poverty , population problems etc. which are also the study area
of sociology. The theories of socialism , communism , democracy ,
freemarket economy , and welfare state
are nothing but the theories of social reorganization or social change. So ,
some social issues , Thomas says, " Economics is , in fact but one branch
of comprehensive science of sociology."
Similarly , many economic
theories are equally important in the field of sociological theories. For
example- modernization theory , dependency theory , world system theory and
Marxist theories in sociology have been taken from economics. So, these two
disciplines are very close to each other. But both subject have their own
subject matter , attitude study method , nature and scope which suggest that
these two disciplines are differ the economic aspects of human society and
sociology covers more or less all aspects of human life which are shown more
clearly in the following table.
|
sociology
|
Economics
|
|
1. Sociology studies the
social relationship and social action or social system.
2. Sociology covers more
or less all aspects of social life .
3. It is a general
science
4. It focuses on group
5. It has very broad
scope
6. Its nature is
empirical and scientific .
7. It has very developed
study method
|
1.Economics
Studies merely the economic relationship and its consequences.
8. Economics studies
merely the economic aspect of social life.
9. It is a special
science
10. It focuses on
individual
11. It has very limited
scope.
12. Its nature is quantitative
and based on statistics .
13. It has not well
developed study methodology as sociology.
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1.7.3 Sociology and political Science :-
Sociology and political science have
also very close relationship to each
other. To show the close relationship between sociology and political
science Morris Ginsbery says , " Historically , sociology
has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history. The Republic
of plato and the politics ' of Aristotle are the examples of Ginsberg's
quotation . It means , sociology is evolved from political science have very
close relationship to each other .
Political science deals with
the principles of organization and government ( or state) of human society. It
is said that , without the sociological background the study of political
science will be incomplete. The structure of government , the nature of
governmental bodies , the rules and regulations of the state etc. are
determined by the social processes which are also the subject matters of
sociology . In the same was , sociology is also to depend upon political
science for its couclusious . likewise , the special study of political life of
the society as a whole. For example –
pope for sociologists which seeks to
combine sociological and
political approaches .
But it doesn't mean that there
is only the close relationship between sociology and political science rather ,
they are different from each other due to their nature , scope , subject matter
, study method and so forth which are shown in the following table:
Difference between sociology
& political science:-
|
Sociology
|
Political science
|
|
1. It is the science of
society and social interaction.
2. It deals with social
man.
3. Its scope is very
broad .
4. It is a general social
science which covers more or less aspects of human life.
5. Sociology studies both
organized or unorganized communities.
6. It deals both
coucious activities of human life.
|
7. It is the science of
state and visible organizations.
8. It deals with
political men.
9. Its scope id very is
very limited .
10. It is a special social
science which covers only the political aspects of human life.
11. Sociology studies
organized communities only.
12. It deals conscious
activities only.
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1.7.4. Sociology and psychology:-
Sociology has also very deep
relationship with psychology. Social psychology and psychology which proves
that sociology and psychology have closeness to each other.
According to vidya Bhushan and
Sachdera , social psychology
deals with meutal processe of men considered as a social being which
particularly studies the influence of group life on the mental development of
individual , the effect of the individual mind on the group , and the
development of the mental life of the groups within themselves and in their
relations with one another . Sociology on the other hands , studies the various
kind of groups which compose the society.
Both sociology and social
psychology are mutually interdependent to each other . Sociology has borrowed
some concept and methods from social psychology. Similarly , social psychology
is also depend on Sociology to understands the social structure and
culture patterns . likewise , karl
person has not accepted that these two social sciences are separate between
these two disciplines motwani says," Social psychology is a link
2 Vidya Bhushan and Sachdeva
ibid p.61.
Between psychology and
sociology ."
But it doesn't mean that
sociology and psychology have only the close relationship and are
interdependent to each other. Because , psychology gives emphasis on individual's
behavior like – attitude , belief , nature , excitement, sentiment anger
intelligence ,hate, jeleousness and other mental activities , on the other hand
, sociology gives emphasis on social relationships and other mental activities
. on the other hand sociology gives emphasis on social relationship and group
behavior and its influence in the society . so that , being closely related in nature, scope subject matter ,
attitude and study methods, which are shown in the following table:
|
Sociology
|
Psychology
|
|
1. Social process and
study of social life of human society are the main subject matter of
sociology.
2. It's a general social
science
3. The scope of sociology
is very wide
4. Social society and
sampling methods are common in sociology
5. Group is the unit of
analysis of sociology.
|
1. Psychic process of
human life is the main subject matter of psychology
2. It is a special social
science.
3. The scope of
psychology is very limited.
4. Experimental methods ,
clinical method , intelligence test etc. are common study methods in
psychology.
5. Individual is the unit
a analysis of psychology.
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2. BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO
ANTHROPOLOGY
2.1 Meaning and Definition :
Aristotle was the first person
who used the term anthropology.' The term anthropology is the union of two
separate Greek worlds , anthropos' and '
logus' which mean 'man ' and study or
science . Thus , etymological meaning of anthropology is science of human. And it may be called that " anthropology
is the science of man and his works and behavior.
According to Evans Pritchard ,
"In 1655 , an anomy mouse 's published , entitled " anthropologies
Abstracted , " defined anthropologies as the history of the human soul and
human anatomy . In 1789, German idealist Kant wrote a book entitled "
Anthropologies " was included in the British Encyclopedia in 1822.
The attempts of anthropological
development and started from long ago (
About 400 B.C. ) .But it gained its full shape after the publication of "
The origin of species " by charls
Darwin in 1859 . So , sharls Darwin is called the founder father of
anthropology.
3. Jha , Makhan , An
introduction to social anthropology , anthropology deals all aspects of human
species and their behavior in all places and all times from the origin of hominids , their evolution to date along with
human cultural evolution human behavior in the present society . Ember and
ember says , " anthropology studies the differences and similarities both
biological and cultural in human population . It is concerned with typical
biological and cultural characteristics of human populations in all periods and
in all parts of the world . "
5 It means , anthropology defines itself
as a discipline of infinite curiosity about human beings.
Some anthropologists have give
the definition of an thropologists in the following ways :
1.
" Anthropology is the study of man and of
fall his works . In its fullest seuse it is the study of races and customs of
mankind " – Hoeber.
2.
. " Anthropology is the Science of groups
of man and their behavior and production . " – A. L. Kroeber.
3.
" anthropology is the Scientific study of
the physical , social and cultural development and behavior of human beings
since their appearance in the earth. " Jocobs and stern .
4.
"
Anthropology is the study of man and his works. –M. J. Herskovits.
5.
" Anthropology studies the emergence and
development of man from the physical , cultural and social point of view .
" – Mojumdar and madan .
6.
" Anthropology deals with man as a social being. " –
Framz Boas .
7.
Anthropo;ogy is the science of man . In one aspect
it is a branch of Natural History , and embraces the study of his origin and
position in the relam of animated nature……In another aspect , anthropology is
the science of history . " T. K. penniman .
8.
Anthropology is a branch of natural history and
deals with man and the races of mankind
" . – Topinarad.
9.
" Anthropology is concerned with humans in
all places of the world , and it traces human evolution and cultural
development from millions of years ago to the present day. " – Ember and
Ember.
On the basis definitions it may be concluded
that anthropology studies the biological or physical origin , evolution ,
variation and adaptation of human beings. Similarly , it also studies human
group , their behavior , , origin and evolution of culture , cultural variation
, discoveries and innovations of mankind and so forth. It means , anthropology
deals more or less all aspects of human life scientifically .
2.2
Nature of Anthropology :
There
is a coutroversy about the nature of nature of anthropology. It means , whether
anthropology is a natural science or a branch of social science or it has the
characteristics of science or not. To seek the answer from these questions , we
have to cast our glance to its main branches . There are two main branch is
nearer to biological science and the second nearer to social science . It means
it has the property of both natural science and social sciences .
On the basis of subject matter and
study methods , the physical anthropology is nearer to biology , geology ,
medical science etc. so some have of opinion that anthropology is a branch of
natural science . on the other hand ,
the subject matter and study methods of social or cultural anthropology is
nearer to social sciences like – sociology, psychology , economics etc. So , it
can be concluded that anthropology is natural as well as social science.
There are some opinions about the nature of anthropology which are
mentioned as follows :
I.
" As
a natural Science anthropology is simultaneously a physical and a social
science . '- Hoebel.
II.
" Anthropology is the science of natural
history . "" T.K . penniman
III.
According to Radcliffe Brown and Malinowski,
anthropology should be treated as nature science because it applies the
observation method which is commom study method of biological sciences.
IV.
According to A. L. Kroeber , Evans Pritchard and
Bidney , anthropology is completely
social science .
On the
basis of these explanations , it may be concluded that anthropology id both
natural as well as social science. According to Hoebel quoted by Gupta and Sharma in social
anthropology , "" The study of man called anthropology when followed
in accordance with the principles and methods of science , is consequently a
natural science . It is almost unique quality , however , is that as a natural
science , it is Simultaneously a physical and social science .
Thus ,
anthropology is a science both natural as well as social . It has well
developed study methods like – fossil dating techniques , laboratory method, observation
or anthropological methods and so forth which prove that it can not be regarded
as a science.
2.3.
Scope of Anthropology :
Anthropology
is broader in scope . It is concerned explicitly and directly with all
varieties with all varieties of people throughout the world , not only those
close at hand or within a limited area.
It is also interested in people of all periods. Beginning with the immediate
ancestors of humans who lived a few million years ago , anthropology traces the
development of humans until present .
Main
field of study of anthropology is physical anthropology which seeks the answer
that how human beings evolved in this form , how they originated , who are the
closest relatives of human , who are the ancestors of humans , how was the
primitive environmental condition , how humans are very from place to place
etc. To achieve the answers from these questions , the physical anthropology
traces the history from millions of years ago to the present Another field of
anthropology cal study is social or cultural anthropology which tries to
discover the cause of cultural evolution, cultural variation, discoveries and
innovations of man , early tools and techniques , the origin of agriculture and
settled life , variation in language , customs , traditions and so froth. It
means , anthropology studies more or less all aspects of human life. So ,
anthropology has very broad scope in contrast to sociology and other social
sciences.
In
addition to the broad scope of anthropology , another special feature of the
discipline is its 'holistic ' or multi – faceted approach to the study of human
beings. Anthropologists not only study
all varieties of the people ; they also study many aspects of human experience
like – the history of the area in which the people like , the physical
environment , the organization of family life , features of language ,
settlement pattern , political and economic system , religion , art and fashion
etc.
Similarly
, the anthropological knowledge have been applying in the field of human
welfare and development after the world was I . many anthropologists were appointed as development worker and
experts in the third world countries of
the world after 1950s . And applied anthropology is quite popular in community
development . So many researches have been conducted by anthropology has very
wide scope in the modern world .
a.
In the sense of the scope of anthropology are :
-
-
Origin of human and their later evolution,
-
Physiological / anatomical differences among
human beings .
-
Physical differences between home sapiens and
other mammals or primates ,
-
Characteristics of human races and their
distribution ,
-
Early environment and its influence to human
evolution , etc.
b.
The second part of the scope of anthropology are
:
-
Origin and evolution of permanent village ,
cities and civilizations , and social institutions ( political , cultural ,
economic , social etc. )
-
Comparative study of marriage , art , music ,
literature , private property , state in this way , anthropology has vary social
sciences .
2.4 Sub- divisions of anthropology :
Anthropologists have not a
single opinion about the sun- division of anthropology . It means , every
anthropologists have divided the anthropology in different sub- disciplines .
According to Ralph Linton , the following
are the sub- divisions of anthropology :
I.
Physical Anthropology : -
a)
Human palaentology ( dfgj cjz]if zf:q )
b)
Somatology dfgj z/L/ zf:q)
II.
Cultural Anthropology :-
a)
Archeology
b)
Ethnology/ Ethongraphy
c)
Linguistics
Likewise , Hoebel has divided
anthropology in to following sub- divisions :-
i.
Physical Anthropology
a)
Anthropometry ( dfgj dfks )
b)
Human biology ( dfgj z/L/ zf:q )
ii.
Archeology
iii.
Cultural anthropology
-
Ethonolgy,
-
Linguistics
-
Social Anthropolgy.
According to professor Dr.
Makhan jha , the sub - divisions of
anthropology one the following:-
i.
Physical Anthropology :-
a)
Human Genetics
b)
Human paleontology
c)
Ethnology
d)
Anthropometry
e)
Biometry
ii.
Cultural Anthropology :-
a)
Prehistoric Archeology
b)
Ethnology
c)
Linguistics
d)
Social Anthropology , etc.
On the basis of there basifications made by various anthropologists
about the sub – divisions of anthropology , it may be classified that
anthropology has the following sub- divisions :-
I.
Physical Anthropology :-
a)
Human Genetics
( dfgj pTklQzf:q )
b)
Human paleontology ( dfgj cjz]if zf:q )
c)
Anthropometry ( dfgj dfks )
d)
Biometry ( hLj dfks )
II.
Socio- cultural Anthropology
a)
Archeology
b)
Ethnography / ethnology
c)
Linguistics
d)
Social Anthropology
III.
Applied Anthropology :-
Brief
descriptions of these sub- divisions has been made as follows :-
I.
Physical Anthropology :
a. Human
Genetics :- According to Colin , human genetics studies the process of
hybridization heredity , physical adaptation , evolution of new races of human
beings , mutation and do forth . Hill and Hill say . " The human
genetics………. Means the science of being born and coming in to beings.
b. Human
paleontology :- Human paleontology is the science that deals with the life of
the past geological periods . It is based on the study of the fossils remains
of organism. It means paleontology is the study of fossil man . the study of
fossil man helps anthropologists about the origin and physical structure of the
organism at that time.
On the
basis of the study of fossil man , an anthropologist able to know when did the
organism emerged and evolved . Likewise , it is a interdisciplinary approach to
study the chronology of hominids , their physical structure , their
archeological remains and habitats .
c. Anthropology
:- According to Herskovits . " anthropometry may be defined as the
measurement of man . It is concerned
with the measurement of cornival capacity of human of different races. Likewise
, it also carry out the comparative study . of the anatomy between humans and pre- human hominids. According to
anthropometry , one racial group is different from another on physiological
basis like height , shape of skill and nose . color of skin , eyes , hair etc.
And they have classified the human beings in to three categories viz ,
Caucasoid ( white ) Negroid ( black ) and mongoloid ( yellow and Red )
In sum
, anthropometry makes a comparative study of human skill , brain case, eye ,
nose , the length of hands and legs , skin color etc.
(2) Biometry :- Biometry is the statistical
analysis of biological studies especially as applied to such areas , as disease
, birth, growth, etc. It studies mainly the generation transmitted dissares
from old generation to new
generation . Some physical anthropologists
have submitted other subjects like otology ( cl:ylj1fg ) and paleopathology ( cl:y/f]u lj1fg ) in
biometry .
II.
Social or cultural Anthropology :
Social or cultural anthropology studies the
origin and history of man's culture , their evolution and development , and the
structure and the functioning of human cultures in every place and time. It's
main branches and their brief descriptions have been mentioned as follows.
A)
Archeology :- Archeology may be defined as the
science devoted to the study of endive
body of tangible relies pertaining to the origin the evolution and the
development of man and of his culture . It deals primarily with ancient
cultures and with past phase of modern civilization . In sum , archeology is
the study of prehistoric and historic
cultures through the analysis of material remains.
B)
Ethnography/ Ethnology :- Ethnography is a
description of a society's customary behaviors , beliefs and attitudes. And
ethnology tries to study how and why recent ( existing ) cultures differ and
are similar. Ethnology or ethnography is concerned with patterns of thought and
behavior , such as marriage customs , kinship organization , political and
economic systems , religion , folk art and music and with the ways in which
these patterns differ in contemporary societies. Ethnologists also study the dynamics
of culture – that is how various cultures develop and change .
C)
Linguistics : -
There are approximately 2700 languages in existence in the world. The
anthological linguists are interested
primarily in the history and structure
of formerly unwritten languages. And the anthropologists are particularly
concerned with the relationship between language and cultural behavior . The
area of interest of anthropological linguistic are . origin of language ., role
of language in the context of social behavior and the using patter of language
and the role of language in socialization process.
D)
Social anthropology :- social anthropology was
developed in England during 1920s . In USA and other countries , the social
anthropology is considered as a branch of cultural anthropology . It mans , there is no
difference between social anthropology. And cultural anthropology . According
to Radcliffe Brown , social anthropology is called the natural history of
society . This discipline involves the comparative study of social systems and
tries to identify the comparative study of social systems and tries to analyse
their interdependence. The social anthropology examines societies without
history and cultures of an exotic nature.
(III) Applied Anthropology
:- The term " Applied
Anthropology " refers to the use of anthropology was firstly applied in
the third world countries during and after the second world war. The scope of
applied anthropology widened and today it is beginning to claim that it can
make a significant contribution for the solution of many burning problems such
as racial tensions and racial conflict , cultural reconstruction and human
welfare etc.
Relationship of Anthropology
with other Sciences :- The field of study of all social sciences is human society
. And particularly , anthropology studies the man and his works . It means ,
from beginning to present anthropology studies more or less all aspects of
human life . i.e. economic aspect , political aspect , social aspect , cultural
aspect , psychological aspect , historical aspect in social or cultural
anthropology and human origin , their later evolution human variation in both cultural and
biological in physical anthropology
To
study all these aspects , anthropology has borrowed some concepts , methods and
theories from other social sciences and natural
sciences like- economics , history , political science , psychology ,
prehistory , sociology ,
zoology , medical science and so forth . Likewise , other social sciences also
have borrowed some
concepts , methods and theories from anthropology. In this way , anthropology
has very deep relationship to other social sciences although all social sciences
have their own subject matter
study method and field of study . so , the relationship of anthropology with
other social sciences have been show as follows
( a) Anthropology and History
:-
Generally history is a systematic study of past events. History is the study
of past social , economical , political and social events. It means history
deals with the best events and theory consequences . It
deals every events
chronological order not than 500 years .
But anthropology studies the
social and the evolution of culture and
society from millions of
years to data . It means , there is superficial similarities between anthropology and
history .But some concepts and methods like
ethnology and comparative studies are common for both anthropology and history
. In this way , history and anthropology are very close to each other .
But , being related to each
other , anthropology and history are different subjects which have their own
subject matter , scope , nature and study methods and
the differences between these two subjects have been mentioned in the
following table :-
(b) Anthropology and Economics
:-
Economics is the science of wealth which
studies about the prodiction system , consumption and
distribution pattern , demand and supply . It means economics studies the
economic aspect of humans life . on the other hand , anthropology also studies
the primitive economic life of human society . And for the economic analysis of society ,
anthropology has borrowed some concepts and theories from economics . similarly , to know
about the economic institutions of the society , economics has also borrowed
some concepts and theories from
anthropology . world system theory ' , dependency theory , modernization theory
etc . have been taken from the economics to
anthropology . In this way , economic and
anthropology are very close to each other .
In spite
go these close relationship and
interdependence to each other , these two disciplines are vary differ from one anther . It means , the subject
matter , attune ,
study method , nature . scope etc. are different from one discipline to
another. The differences between these two disciplines have been men timed in the following table :-
( C) Anthropology and Political
Science :-
Anthropology and political science are
also very close to each other. The field of study of both anthropology and
political science is human society . political institutions , state ,
government , political system , political theories etc. are the common subjects
of study of both anthropology studies the whole aspects of human life along
with the political aspects from primitive to present day situation so that
anthropology has borrowed some concepts and theories from political science .
likewise , political science is based on anthropological
methods to understand the
situation of political institution . so
that they have mutual interdependence to each other . In this way , anthropology and political
science are very close to each other .
But in spite of these similarities and
interdependence to each other , anthropology and political science are
different disciplines on the basis of main subject matter , attitude , study
method , nature and scope . The
differences between anthropology and political science have been shown in the
following table :-
(d) Anthropology and psychology
:-
Anthropology and psychology
have also very close relationship to each other. Psychology is the science
which studies human behavior such as talent , intelligence , anger , excitement , timber , anger, hate, jealousness and other mental processed which also studies the human mental
behavior and their influence to that
society and culture. In this way ,
anthropology and psychology are very close to each other . some concepts ,
methods and theorized have
been taken from psychology by anthropology .
The pattern school of thought or
psychological school of thought are very common in anthropology which were
developed from psychology. Margret mead , G.H. mead , Ralph Linton ,Franz Boas etc. were very
much influenced by
psychological approaches . Like wise , psychology is
also influenced by
anthropology . The ' social psychology ; is a common subject of specialization
for that , anthropology and psychology are very close to each other .
In spite of the close
relationship and interdependence to each other , anthropology and psychology
are different disciplines on the
basis of subject matter , attitude , study method , nature and scoop which are shown in the
following table :-
मलेसियामा अवैधानिक बसोबास गर्ने १ सय २० नेपाली पक्राउ
भिसा सकिएका, कुनै कागजात नभएका र अवैधानीक रुपमा बसोबास गर्ने बिदेश कामदार पक्राउ गर्ने अभियान चलाएको मलेसिएन प्रहरीले नेपाली बाहुल बजारमा छापा मारेर १ सय २० जना नेपालीलाई गैर कानुनी बसोबास गरेको भन्दै नियन्त्रणमा लिएको छ । उनीहरुसँग कुनै पनि कागजात नभएको र भिसाको म्याद सकिएको मलेसियाली प्रहरीले दाबी गरेको छ ।
प्रहरी र मलेसिया अध्यागमन बिभागको संयुक्त टोलीले आइतबार कोताराया बजारमा धरपकड गर्दाे १ हजार १ सय ९८ जना बिदेशीलाई पक्राउ गरेको थियो ।
मलेसियाबाट प्रकाशित हुने द स्टार दैनिक पत्रिकाका अनुसार पक्राउ परेकामध्ये २ सय १५ जना अबैधानिक थिए । तीमध्ये १ सय २० जना नेपाली रहेको र उनीहरुसग कुनै कागजपत्र नफेला नपरेको बताइएको छ ।
पक्राउ परेका कामदारहरु बंगलादेश, म्यान्मार, इण्डानेसिया, फिलिपिन्स लगायतका मुलुकका रहेको र उनीहरु लामो समयदेखि अवैधानिक रुपमा त्याहा बसोबास गर्दै काम गरिरहेको स्थानीय प्रहरी जनाएको भन्दै स्टार टाइम्सले समाचार लेखेको छ ।
बिगतमा पनि अवैधानिक रुपमा बसेका बिदेशी कामदारहरुलाई पक्राउ गरि अनुन्धान गरेको र डिसेम्बर ३१ त्ारिख सम्म मलेसिया छोड्न आम माफी दिइएको थियो । मलेसिया सरकारले दिएको आममाफीको अबसर सकिएपछि अहिले मलेसिया सरकारले धरपकडलाई तीब्रता दिएको छ ।
बिषेश गरि नेपाली, बंगलादेशी, फिलिपिनो, र इण्डोनेसियनहरु बसोबास गरेको क्षेत्रमा छापा मार्ने क्रमलाई तीब्रता दिइएको त्याहा रहेका नेपाली कामदार जीवन गौतमले बताएका छन् । उनी भन्दा अगाडि गएर भिसाको म्याद सकिएका पर्ूर्वी नेपालका नेपाली कामदारहरु पनि पक्राउ परेका उनले बताए तर नाम खुलाउन चाहेनन् ।
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